‘From the Glories of Ancient Aksum to the Mysteries of Ancient Egypt: A Tale of Two Memorable Scholarly Events’
By: Gloria Emeagwali:-
By: Gloria Emeagwali:-
On October 24, 2009 the curtains went down on one of the most memorable events of the year, for those who took the time to view the exhibition, ‘Lucy’s Legacy, the Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia,’ hosted by Discovery Times Square Exposition. The exhibit provided an evolutionary narrative of our ancestral family tree, ranging from the seven million year old Sahelanthropus tchadensis to Ardipethecus kadabba, Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus anamensis, and, the star of the exhibit, Australopithecus afarensis, Dinkenesh, alias Lucy. We were reminded during the exhibit that the discovery of the skeletal remains of Dinkenesh took place the very year that Haile Selassie was overthrown. The 1974 discovery marked the end of an era, and the start of a new episode in Hominid history which propelled Ethiopia to the forefront of research in this field. Most of the fossils discovered to date, have been found in Ethiopia, considered by some scholars to be‘ the cradle of mankind.’ Most instructive, for scholars of ancient
northeast Africa, were the numerous artifacts on display from Aksum, including some of the world’s earliest coins in silver, copper and gold. The coins represented several Ethiopian monarchs, including King Endubis (270-300AD), King Kaleb ( 520 AD), King Wazena (6th century), King Halaz (575 AD), King Gersen (600AD), and King Armah (614 AD). On display were medicinal scrolls, book stamps, pens and locally made ink, and processional and hand held crosses, representing everlasting life. There were diverse swords, spears and daggers of various dimensions, with and without sheaths, one of which was about 6 feet in length. Also on display were board games, and musical instruments such as the bagana, an 8 or 10 string lyre, and the sistrum, an ancient musical instrument still used in the Ethiopian orthodox church and also used by the Egyptians. An exquisite outfit of velvet and silk, traditionally worn by Oromo horsemen, was also on display. One of the cherished items for viewers was a replica of the remarkable Church of Beta Giyorghis, or, St. George’s Church, chiseled and sculptured in the shape of a cross, being one of eleven churches attributed by some scholars to the era of King Lalibela of the Zagwe dynasty. Lalibela, the city, previously known as Roha, was Ethiopia’s capital in the 12th and 13th century. The Aksumites were associated with Christianity from its early inception, according to Biblical references. The kingdom later adopted Christianity officially, just about a decade after Rome. Ethiopia is believed to be th host of the Ark of the Covenant, and to date has the largest Christian Orthodox Church, built by Emperor Haile Selassie before his assassination in 1974.The Ethiopian Aksumites constructed the largest stone monument in the world, a carved stone monolith, weighing 500 tons and 100 ft high, taller than the Egyptian pyramid of Giza, and one of the eight UNESCO heritage sites of Ethiopia. The largest existing stela is 68 feet tall and ten stories high, inscribed with false windows and doors. Emperor Fasilidas is credited with the establishment of Gondar in 1636, in the post -Aksumite era. Monasteries, baths and a series of castles are among the attractions of this city, located south of Aksum and north of Lalibela. There were ample illustrations of this wondrous monument in the exhibit.
Ethiopia is also home to the third largest Muslim population in Africa. Ethiopia’s Harar hosts the fourth most important Islamic center after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. Ethiopian contact with Islam dates back to 615 AD when King Armah, provided protection for exiled supporters of the Prophet Mohammed, including one of his future wives. Four Korans from Harar were on display. There were some illustrations related to Ethiopia’s Jewish population, or Beta Israel, 20,000 of whom remain in Gondar. The interconnections between Emperor Haile Selassie, Rastafarianism and Marcus Garvey were commented on in the exhibit, and attracted the attention of several visitors.
The exhibit was not flawless. The timeline on display at the entrance to the exhibit could have included more references to the rest of Africa, to situate Dinkenesh (Lucy), and Aksum, for that matter, in the wider African story. Yeha was founded around 900 BC, but about 10,000 years before Yeha, Malian and Nubian pots were being fashioned in the West African and northeast African regions. About seven thousand years before Yeha, Nigeria’s famous Dufuna boat would have been constructed. One hundred thousand years before them all, artifacts would have been created by early South Africans at Blombos. Aksum must therefore be placed in a wider context of African historical growth. Another observation is that during the exhibit, the use of the Ethiopian name Dinkenesh was half hearted, with insufficient attempt to truly redefine the naming process, in the interest of Ethiopian realities.
One area for improvement in museums and exhibits in general is in the area of donor acknowledgement. Where possible, the original source of the object should be identified, in addition to the gift donor. The glorification of gift donors should not be done at the expense of the original village or town from which the object came. Finally, the exhibit’s representation of Homo sapiens sapiens attempted to reflect diversity but failed. African representation was inadequate, weak, subdued and peripheral. The image was a vast improvement on the old Eurocentric image of Homo sapiens sapiens, which used to be exclusively Caucasoid in appearance, but this present image is not inclusive enough.
Three weeks before the closing of the Discovery Times Exhibition, the University of Manchester hosted a conference of great significance to scholars of Ancient Northeast Africa. The goal of the conference was to situate Egypt in its African context, and for that purpose, several scholars were invited. The conference was opened by the Curator, Egypt and the Sudan at the Manchester Museum, Dr. Karen Exell. This was followed by an excellent presentation by Dr. Shomarka Keita of the National Human Genome Center, Howard University and the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Keita presented an illuminating powerpoint presentation on the peopling of the Nile Valley, making reference to linguistics, archeology and human biology. Dr. Amon Saakana proceeded to point to the pictographic, petroglyphic and other forms of writing as they illuminated the role of Nubia in shaping the emerging Egyptian state. He emphasized that by 7000BCE, in Nubia, there was the cult of cattle, incised drawings on rocks, and megalithic structures mapping the Orion constellation, all predating later Egyptian adoptions. Saakana’s arguments basically correlated with those of Dr. Alain Anselin whose main argument was that Egyptian civilization originated in Naqadan cultures which were basically derived from an early African pool of cultures. Muzzolini (2001), Wendorf (2004), Friedman (2002), Le Quellec (2005), Hassan (2002) and Kobuciewicz (2004) have provided relevant scholarly research related to the Chadic, Nilo-Saharan and Nilotic foundations of Ancient Egyptian civilization, according to Dr. Anselin.
Dr. Ana Navajas-Jimenez of Oxford University looked at the African context of pharaonic power and kingship, with emphasis on the predynastic cattle culture from which it emerged, while Dr. Kimani Nehusi of the University of East London focused on similarities in libation practices in ancient Egypt, and other parts of Africa and its Diaspora. He raised the issue of cultural continuity and interconnections between the ancient northeast and the rest of the continent. In similar vein Dr. Abdul Salau would explore the linguistic interconnections between the Yoruba language and ancient Egyptian, developing farther some arguments made by J.O Lucas a few decades ago. Dr. Sally -Ann Ashton of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge University, wondered whether there was the fear of a Black land, and so did Robin Walker of Black History Studies, London. Ultimately Western scholars decided to sacrifice Nubia to save Egypt from ‘Afrocentric heresy’ but the Egyptologists were prepared to compromise on Dynasty XXV and perhaps on Dynasty X11, but that was all, according to Walker, in his incisive critique of Eurocentric methodology with respect to Egypt. The present writer, in her presentation, concluded that out of 20
World History textbooks examined, six models emerged with respect to the identity of ancient Egypt, inclusive of Isolationist, Eurasian, West Asian, Aegean, Afro-Eurasian and African centered models. She concluded that authors of World History Textbooks in the United States must ultimately situate their discussion of ancient Egypt squarely in ancient Africa for a more logical and intelligible analysis of ancient Egyptian society.
These memorable events represented two positive scholarly initiatives on Ancient Africa, on both sides of the Atlantic.
Three weeks before the closing of the Discovery Times Exhibition, the University of Manchester hosted a conference of great significance to scholars of Ancient Northeast Africa. The goal of the conference was to situate Egypt in its African context, and for that purpose, several scholars were invited. The conference was opened by the Curator, Egypt and the Sudan at the Manchester Museum, Dr. Karen Exell. This was followed by an excellent presentation by Dr. Shomarka Keita of the National Human Genome Center, Howard University and the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Keita presented an illuminating powerpoint presentation on the peopling of the Nile Valley, making reference to linguistics, archeology and human biology. Dr. Amon Saakana proceeded to point to the pictographic, petroglyphic and other forms of writing as they illuminated the role of Nubia in shaping the emerging Egyptian state. He emphasized that by 7000BCE, in Nubia, there was the cult of cattle, incised drawings on rocks, and megalithic structures mapping the Orion constellation, all predating later Egyptian adoptions. Saakana’s arguments basically correlated with those of Dr. Alain Anselin whose main argument was that Egyptian civilization originated in Naqadan cultures which were basically derived from an early African pool of cultures. Muzzolini (2001), Wendorf (2004), Friedman (2002), Le Quellec (2005), Hassan (2002) and Kobuciewicz (2004) have provided relevant scholarly research related to the Chadic, Nilo-Saharan and Nilotic foundations of Ancient Egyptian civilization, according to Dr. Anselin.
Dr. Ana Navajas-Jimenez of Oxford University looked at the African context of pharaonic power and kingship, with emphasis on the predynastic cattle culture from which it emerged, while Dr. Kimani Nehusi of the University of East London focused on similarities in libation practices in ancient Egypt, and other parts of Africa and its Diaspora. He raised the issue of cultural continuity and interconnections between the ancient northeast and the rest of the continent. In similar vein Dr. Abdul Salau would explore the linguistic interconnections between the Yoruba language and ancient Egyptian, developing farther some arguments made by J.O Lucas a few decades ago. Dr. Sally -Ann Ashton of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge University, wondered whether there was the fear of a Black land, and so did Robin Walker of Black History Studies, London. Ultimately Western scholars decided to sacrifice Nubia to save Egypt from ‘Afrocentric heresy’ but the Egyptologists were prepared to compromise on Dynasty XXV and perhaps on Dynasty X11, but that was all, according to Walker, in his incisive critique of Eurocentric methodology with respect to Egypt. The present writer, in her presentation, concluded that out of 20
World History textbooks examined, six models emerged with respect to the identity of ancient Egypt, inclusive of Isolationist, Eurasian, West Asian, Aegean, Afro-Eurasian and African centered models. She concluded that authors of World History Textbooks in the United States must ultimately situate their discussion of ancient Egypt squarely in ancient Africa for a more logical and intelligible analysis of ancient Egyptian society.
These memorable events represented two positive scholarly initiatives on Ancient Africa, on both sides of the Atlantic.
Source: http://www.africahistory.net
As mentioned before, the religion of Neolithic (late stone age) and pre-dynastic Egypt appears to have been animistic/nature worship, where each village or town had its own spirit deity in the form of an animal, bird, reptile, tree, plant or object. This spirit was always in something that played a prominent part in the life of the people. The spirits fell into two general categories, those which were friendly and helpful, such as cattle, or those that were menacing and powerful such as Bulls, crocodiles or snakes. In both cases, the favor of the spirit had to be solicited with a set formula of words and actions, and the spirits also had to have houses built for them, and offerings made to them.
Horus and Nekhbet {the vulture goddess}, came to represent Upper Egypt. In Lower Egypt, it was Set/Seth and Udjo, and also the cobra goddess of Buto. In later Egyptian history, the vulture and cobra were united into the royal diadem, to represent dominion over both lands. So when Nekhem became the most powerful town, Horus became the main god. The rulers started to identify themselves as the living embodiment of the hawk god. The ability to grow of Egyptian religion is one of the reasons why Egypt ended up with such a complex and polytheistic religious system. When a town grew in prominence, so too did the god. When the town was deserted, the god disappeared.
Egyptians had a very varied diet, they grew wheat and other cereal grains from which they made breads, and brewed many varieties of beer. They grew a large variety of fruits, which they ate fresh or dried, they also grew grapes, which were eaten fresh or dried, but also with which they made a great variety of wines. They also grew a wide variety of vegetables. They ate beef, fowl, fish and game animals, and pork - contrary to popular belief, Egyptians did eat pork. 
Because of its hot climate, in Egypt shaving and hair removal was a regular part of daily grooming. The Egyptians had an unusual obsession with personal body hygiene. The great Greek historian/storyteller HERODOTUS, stated that the Egyptians bathed several times a day, and "set cleanness above seemliness." 
In the next period, known as Naqada III, Egypt has by now, been split-up into many administrative/territorial divisions, known as Nomes. Each nome has it's own sacred animal or plant that became the totem, or emblem of that nome. This emblem was usually depicted on the pottery of each nome. It is also at this time that we see Egypt referred to as - Upper and Lower Egypt - with twenty nomes in Lower Egypt and twenty-two in Upper Egypt. Each nome had its own ruler, but perhaps with an over-all ruler. It is not known what the original political make-up was, or how many times if any, there was unity and then a break-up.
In any event, there is general agreement that Narmer should be credited as the unifier of Egypt, and hence the first Pharaoh of the first Dynasty. Whether or not, this is the first unification of Egypt is unknown. During the Early Dynastic period, the king of ancient Egypt already had much of the trappings of royal regalia familiar from later times, including the double crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt and various scepters. These crowns, scepters and other elements, offered and represented power and protection. They also set the king apart from everyone else and conveyed his authority, both secular and religious.
Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time of embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and appeared intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance does not answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though not representing him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined, intelligent features, but a comparison with the mummy shows that the artists have idealized their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones extremely prominent; the whole recalling the physiognomy of Thûtmosis II, though with a greater show of energy.
The British Museum - one of the main depositories of ancient artifacts: has come up with a truly novel explanation for the defacing of Black artifacts. 
In Egypt, sometime around 40,000 to 15,000 years ago, the rains started to diminish, and the Sahara, which had been a fertile land, started to dry up, and was becoming a desert. Fleeing the advancing desert, many of the people that were living in the area started to migrated closer to the only dependable source of fresh water - the Nile River. Over the following thousands of years, the Sahara became a total desert, completely incapable of supporting human life except for the Oasis'. By then, the people of the area had already moved to the Nile River Valley. And it is here in the Nile Valley, where as these early human groups are forced to live closer and ever closer to each other, they start to cooperate with each other, and to learn from each other.
Now lets look at these ancient people in terms of their cultural phases: that is to say, how man was thinking, living and working at a given time in a given place. (as always, these cultural phase names are taken from the place where the evidence and artifacts were found, we never know what they called these places or themselves). 
It was also at this time, that they introduced the Sun God "Ra" (later Horus). Whose symbol was the falcon, and the love goddess Hathor, whose symbol was the cow. There were also significant changes in their type of burial. Whereas before, the corpse was generally wrapped in some sort of covering, and buried in a contracted position facing the west. Now those in Gerzean graves, showed no particular orientation at all, but the graves were now much more elaborate. Here also is evidence of an elite social class, from the grave goods found. These more elaborate funerals have larger rectangular graves, with walls lined with either masonry or wood. 
